Taekwondo, Embracing Korean Culture

Preface

PART 1. The Cultural and Historical Identity of Taekwondo / 13

I. Culture as the Artificial Transformation of Nature ·· 15
1. The Polysemy of the Concept of Culture ············································· 15
2. The Dual Character of Nature and the Classification of Culture ······ 25
3. Modes of Transforming Nature in the East and the West ················ 32
4. A Comparison of Western and Eastern Physical Culture: Sports and Martial Arts ···· 40
5. The Cultural Identity of Taekwondo ······················································ 45

II. Taekwondo as a Traditional Korean Martial Art ···· 47
1. The Historical Debate over Taekwondo ················································ 47
2. The Concepts and Conditions of "Tradition" ········································· 52
3. The Criteria for Traditional Martial Arts ················································· 57
4. Taekwondo as a Traditional Korean Martial Art ··································· 62
5. Conclusion of the Debate ········································································ 68

III. What is Taekwondo? ················································· 71
1. Reconstructing the Definition of Taekwondo ······································ 72
2. Self-Defense and Self-Realization ······················································· 76
3. Empty-Hand Defensive and Offensive Techniques Specialized in Kicking ··· 83
4. Suryeon (Cultivation / Practice) ······························································ 89
5. Martial Arts Sport ······················································································ 93
[Supplement] The Origins of the Names "Taekwondo" and "Taekkyeon" ·· 98

IV. Traditional Korean Unarmed Martial Arts ··········· 101
1. Subak: The Unarmed Martial Art of Antiquity ···································· 102
2. Unarmed Martial Arts of the Goryeo Dynasty: Subak, Subakhui, and Obyeongsubakhui ···· 114
3. Subak in the Early Joseon Dynasty ····················································· 123
4. Gwonbeop in the Mid-Joseon Dynasty ············································· 128
[Supplement] The Muyedobotongji ··························································· 137
5. Taekkyeon: The Unarmed Martial Art Since the 18th Century ······· 140




PART 2. Korean Culture Imbued in Taekwondo / 151

V. Taekwondo Dobok and Hanbok ······························· 153
1. The Tradition of the "White-Clad People" ·········································· 154
2. The Origins and Development of Hanbok ·········································· 160
3. The Science and Aesthetics of Hanbok ·············································· 164
4. The Emergence and Development of the Taekwondo Dobok ······· 167
5. The Evolution of Taekwondo Competition Uniforms ······················· 172

VI. The Theory of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements Embodied in Belt Colors ····· 179
1. The Origins and Functions of the Martial Arts Belt ·························· 180
2. The Five Belt Colors and the Theory of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements ······· 185
3. Application of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements in Daily Korean Life ··· 192
4. Belt Colors and the Hierarchical System in Taekwondo ·················· 198
5. How to Tie the Taekwondo Belt ·························································· 201

VII. Kukkiwon Clothed in Hanok (Traditional Korean House) ············· 203
1. The Background of Kukkiwon's Establishment ································· 203
2. Core Projects and Objectives of Kukkiwon ········································ 210
3. The Aesthetics of Hanok ······································································· 214
4. The Science of Hanok ············································································ 218

VIII. Dojang - What Kind of Place is It? ······················· 221
1. Dojang as a Sanctuary for Enlightenment and Practice ·················· 221
2. The Three Faces of Taekwondo Dojangs in Reality ························· 227
3. The Crisis of Modern Dojangs - Conflict Between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Goods ···· 230
4. Harmony of Function and Value - The Wisdom of Munmu-gyeomjeon (Mastery of Both the Literary and Martial) ····· 232
5. Dojang - A Space Moving from Sul (Technique) to Do (The Way) ·· 235

IX. Sabum (Master) - From Technique Instructor to Life Guide ··········· 237
1. The Etymology and Modern Meaning of Sabum ······························· 237
2. The Traditional Images of a Teacher ··················································· 241
3. The Modern Images of an Educator ···················································· 244
4. The Dual Identity of the Sabum ··························································· 246
5. The Future-Oriented Image of the Sabum ········································ 249
[Supplement] Virtues of a Taekwondo Sabum ········································ 251

X. Taekwondo and Traditional Korean Etiquette ······ 257
1. The Traditional Korean Society that Valued Ye-ui (Propriety) ········ 257
2. Ye-ui (Propriety) and Ye-jeol (Etiquette) ··········································· 265
3. Traditional Korean Etiquette ································································· 270
4. Etiquette for Martial Arts Practitioners vs. the General Public ······· 280
5. Etiquette in Taekwondo ········································································ 287

XI. Taekwondo Poom/Dan Promotion Test as a Ritual ·· 295
1. Meaning and Function of Ritual ··························································· 295
2. Rituals in Traditional Korean Society ··················································· 299
3. Taekwondo Promotion Test as a Rite of Passage ···························· 301
4. Current Status of Taekwondo Promotion Test and the Lack of Ritualistic Character ····· 303
5. Recovery of Rituality and Institutional Improvement ······················· 309

PART 3. The Spirit of Taekwondo, Hallyu, and Globalization / 315

XII. Traditional Korean Thought Embedded in the
Taekwondo Spirit ··················································· 317
1. The Meaning of the Taekwondo Spirit ················································ 317
2. Functions of the Taekwondo Spirit ······················································ 322
3. The Taekwondo Spirit - Geukgi (Overcoming Oneself) ·················· 325
4. The Taekwondo Spirit - Hongik (Benefiting Mankind Widely) ······· 331
5. Korean Thought Pervading the Taekwondo Spirit ···························· 335

XIII. Taekwondo as the Original Hallyu ····················· 341
1. The Rise of Soft Diplomacy ·································································· 341
2. Private-led Taekwondo Soft Diplomacy (1950s-1970s) ················· 346
3. Government-led Taekwondo Soft Diplomacy (1970s-Present) ···· 352
4. Challenges of Soft Diplomacy Through Taekwondo ························ 356

XIV. The Uniqueness of Taekwondo and Its Success in Globalization ····· 359
1. Introduction ····························································································· 359
2. Invasion Biology as a Theoretical Background ·································· 364
3. Cultural Interpretation of Biological Characteristics ························· 369
4. The Distinctiveness and Requisite Variety of Taekwondo ·············· 375
5. Conclusion ······························································································· 389

References ······································································ 392
Appendix: Glossary of Classical Korean Texts ············ 402
About the Author ··························································· 404

Hyeong-Seok Song was born in Jeungpyeong, Chungcheongbuk-do, Korea.
After graduating from Kyungsung Middle and High School in Seoul, he pursued
his undergraduate and graduate studies in Physical Education at Seoul National
University. In 1991, he moved to Germany to study at the German Sport
University Cologne (Deutsche Sporthochschule K?ln), where he conducted
extensive research in philosophy, sociology, and pedagogy, and earned his Ph.D.
in Sport Science in 1996.

Since 1999, he has served as a Professor in the Department of Taekwondo
(specializing in Taekwondo Philosophy) at Keimyung University. His international
academic career includes serving as a Visiting Professor at the Institute of
Pedagogy and Philosophy of the German Sport University Cologne (2008-2009)
and at the Technical University of Dortmund (2020-2021). From 2018 to 2019,
he served as the 16th President of the Korean Society for the Philosophy of
Sport, Dance, and Martial Arts.

His major original and collaborative works include Body Textbook: The First
Step for Adolescents' Life Lessons (selected as a 2022 Sejong Book) and A
Philosophical Inquiry into Taekwondo (selected as an Outstanding Academic
Book by the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism in 2012). As an
accomplished translator, his notable translations include Luhmann-Handbuch
1: Leben - Werk - Wirkung (selected as a 2024 Sejong Book), Systemtheorie
und Sport by Karl Heinrich Bette (selected as an Outstanding Academic Book
by the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Korea in 2017), and
From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports by Allen Guttmann
(selected as an Outstanding Academic Book by the National Academy of
Sciences in 2009).

His recent publications include Taekwondo Textbook 1 - Understanding
Taekwondo (Kukkiwon, 2021), Taekwondo Textbook: Condensed Korean-English
History of Taekwondo Elders Vol. 5: Hong Jeong-pyo, Park Cheol-hee, Lee
Geum-hong (Kukkiwon, 2025), and Observing Sport: A Study Based on Niklas
Luhmann's Systems Theory (2025). To date, he has authored or translated more
than 100 research papers and over 30 books, both independently and in
collaboration with other scholars.